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DNA has not Diogenes syndrome

Recreation of a DNA molecule. Credits:

Università degli Studi di Firenze

few days ago I was talking to my colleague and friend Patxi San Martin (Center for Astrobiology, INTA-CSIC) on DNA. It is not my specialty, so for most of the conversation was he who spoke, I limited myself to listen. I said that "man and the chimpanzee are similar in 96% at the DNA level, but what surprised me is that" more than 90% of DNA is colloquially called junk DNA . " He gave this description because it is known that does not code for proteins or promoters, which is unknown much of its function. That description is still used today.

In the case of human genome has been sequenced in its entirety but have not yet been marked variation between individuals, they are responsible for making us different from each other. What is known, said Patxi, is that "only about 5% contain information that leads to the synthesis of proteins or RNA with catalytic activity."

As I said Patxi significant fact that "each time a cell duplicates ours are copied each and every one of the 3000 million bases that make up our genome and are found to be as faithful to the original. "The human being is composed of about 50 trillion cells, for instance, the skin cells that make up our home to about 7-10 days, we can make the idea of \u200b\u200benergy expenditure involved for the body having to duplicate them. But there is an issue and that all living beings, including humans, tend to maximize energy savings, which, if that 90% of the so-called junk DNA had no utility, natural selection would have already removed several thousands of years and which otherwise would cause a waste of energy.

as my partner Patxi Scientists think that junk DNA plays essential functions, what happens is that have not yet been discovered. In favor of this version is also Peter Andolfatto (University of California), published in Nature that "this in reference to DNA junk DNA" actually have a role in the organism's survival and evolution of the species. " The Universe

something similar happens since it appears that mostly seems to consist of something we can not detect, that "something" is called dark matter and, depending on the sources, are given various percentages but in all cases the proportion of dark matter is more than material ordinary.

A good definition of this type of stuff is offered by Laura Giordani in tendencias21.net by way of introduction to his book of poetry Dark Matter. It reads: "unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough radiation to be observed directly. This invisible matter constitutes 25% of the universe compared to 5% occupied by ordinary matter. Moreover, the densest regions of ordinary matter is accumulate where there are large concentrations of dark matter, it seems to be the hidden scaffolding that underpins the construction sites of stars and galaxies. "

Finally, after all, that dark matter is something imperceptible to us because of our instrumental bias, over time as we have more sensitive equipment will be able to be gaining ground "becoming" ordinary matter. At present the only evidence we have of the dark matter is the effect it has on the universe.

If only for elegance, should not qualify as derogatory to any facet of science. Surely, for the sake of nomenclature, it would not pull in an informative news article by a scientist who investigates dark matter than one that investigates waste matter. And surely would have occurred so in the case of DNA. ---


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GAL4/UAS system in Drosophila, the Swiss Army knife of geneticists

As I told in a previous post, the small fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster ) has many advantages for use as a model for understanding the genes. I told them that there are many molecular tools. Today we'll talk about one of them, GAL4/UAS system.
This system is used for targeted gene expression and was obtained nothing less than the brewer's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . It works by using the transcription factor, "GAL4" (transcription factors are proteins that regulate the expression of other genes), this factor binds very specifically to a regulatory sequence that is upstream of its target genes called UAS (Upstream Activating Sequence). Thus, one can perform an intersection where the female contains a UAS sequence attached to a fluorescent marker such as GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein), which is a protein that absorbs light in the UV spectrum and emits green (This protein was obtained from the jellyfish Aequorea victory). The male, on the other hand, must contain a GAL4 associated with the promoter (the switch) of the gene of interest. Thus, the recombinant flies obtained from the F1 generation, when expressing the gene of interest, will be expressing GAL4, which will join the UAS sequence, triggering the expression of GFP. Thus, cells where the gene of interest is being expressed, shall be marked with a green fluorescent, as explained in the following scheme:

From this junction, when heterozygous parents ( the sign "+" means that the homologous chromosome is wild) can obtain animals that inherit the UAS-GFP from the mother, but not GAL4 father, therefore, there will be no element that triggers the fluorescence. Another alternative is to obtain an animal that inherits the father GAL4, but not UAS-GFP from the mother, therefore, there will be no place GAL can join and no fluorescence. The option you want, is an animal that inherits the 2 elements, and will present fluorescence in cells where the gene of interest is being expressed.
Seeing a little beyond the art, it is noteworthy to use yeast genes and proteins from jellyfish into a fly, you may ask, why is it possible?. I think already know the answer. Joseph B.


Duffy (2002) GAL4 system in Drosohila: A fly geneticist's swiss army knife. Wiley-Liss, Inc. Genesis 34:1-15

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UDFj image of the galaxy-39546284 on a section of the

image of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. Credits: NASA /

ESA / G. Illingworth / R. Team Bowens/HUDF09

"Once upon a time a photon which started from a faraway place shortly after the origin of space and time. "It could well start in this way that tells a story of adventure that ran the light from the galaxy UDFj-39546284 to be detected by the Hubble Space Telescope. These light rays have passed through the cold universe for about 13,220 million of years until finally, a few of these rays have gone to the WFC3 (stands for Wide Field Camera 3) installed in May 2009 in the most famous space telescope in the world.

With the data you offered the finding published in Nature , has reached "a point very close to the formation of the first galaxies that formed about 200 to 300 million years after the Big Bang, "said astrophysicist Garth Illingworth (University of California) at the press conference convened on January 26, NASA announced the discovery. In other words, using light as a time machine, looking at this galaxy are seeing the universe as it was "only" 480 million years after the Big Bang.

The galaxy in question is very small relative to the Milky Way, it is estimated that about 100 times smaller, however the light was obtained from this galaxy is an early stage of evolution. As a result of the analysis of these data, it was discovered that during that time the birth rate of stars in the universe was about 10 times greater than today. This seems to conclude that the universe at that time was engulfed in a wave of creation of celestial bodies.

For detection method has been used redshift of light, this procedure is based on the Doppler effect that occurs in the waves by increasing its wavelength when away from a observation point, stretching it to longer wavelengths, in this case, red. The relationship between the redshift of a body and the distance between us and he became Edwin Hubble demonstrated, a fact which served to demonstrate that the universe is expanding rapidly.

still do not have to launch from the rooftops since the discovery is not fully confirmed because the ability of the Hubble Space Telescope has been pushed to the limit in this discovery, but the data analyzed for optimism. Since the Hubble Space Telescope is about to pass away, perhaps his last major discovery in the case and if so, this instrument has exceeded expectations with which it was launched into space in 1990. Now if we take a step closer to sniff the Big Bang we must have patience specifically to the launch of Hubble's successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), scheduled for 2014. Until then we have no choice but to keep speculating about the first moments of the Universe.

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The Longest Journey Where does our reality? Earth and extraterrestrial Types

artist's conception of a black hole. Credits: NASA

recently published in the journal Nature the discovery of a supermassive black hole within a dwarf galaxy. The galaxy in question "is about 30 times smaller than the diameter of the Milky Way" as said Rafael Bachiller (Director of the National Astronomical Observatory) in the newspaper El Mundo . This finding appears to shed light on the formation of galaxies, and it seems that they are a cause for forming it, and not a result as expected.

But ... What is a black hole? Black hole ... a word that sounds like science fiction. Being pragmatic, the answer is simple: a black hole is the final stage of a star much more massive than the Sun speaking, a black hole will happen when the mass of the star exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit .

Then, if the answer to the question "What is a black hole is so simple, why create so much controversy? There are several reasons:

One is that these heavenly bodies are so massive and, therefore, so much gravitational pull that nothing can escape this force. According to Giovanni Miniutti says (Center for Astrobiology, CSIC-INTA) in laflecha.net , "for its intense gravity, no particle of matter, not even light can escape from black holes (...) As the matter falls toward the black hole is so hot that issued its latest call for help in the form of high energy radiation from X-rays before disappearing forever. "And those X-rays which detected. Thanks to them and using indirect methods of study, we know that black holes exist and we know their characteristics.

Another reason, and not least, we do not know what happens when matter crosses the event horizon , and that to escape the pull of the black hole should travel faster than the speed of light (300,000 km / s) and, as we know from the Theory of Relativity of Albert Einstein, is possible to overcome this speed, therefore, no data on what happens inside. In other words, when something crosses the event horizon of the observable universe disappears.

The volume that encompasses the event horizon in physics is called uniqueness, and this occurs when a rule of science is not enforced. In this case, if light can not escape the event horizon is because the escape velocity at these points is greater than the speed of light, that is not true in our physics.

The enormous gravitational forces that appear in the vicinity of a black hole can be bent so the spacetime that we are looking forward we would our own back. When it crosses the event horizon, anything can be valid because once you've crossed that barrier, the laws we know disappear and imagine anything could happen.

If we seek a place where there are no corrupt politicians, where the human being to respect their peers, or where you meet all the wishes of the Miss Universe of Time, that place is inside the event horizon (or at least for now) .

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What is life?, a question answered two Chilean biologists may

Today we Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, two giant biologists have laid many foundations of modern science (sorry they are generally little known to the other Chileans). They apparently made the inevitable question: What is life?
Once the questions started to look what are the characteristics that allow us to distinguish between living and non-living (if they get to philosophize, they will realize that it is not a trivial question.) Thus, discovered a property that is inherent in the phenomenon of life (although there are other systems with this property, as discussed below. However, it is a hallmark of life), this is the autopoiesis.
Autopoiesis is basically the ability of a system of "build itself" to maintain an inner balance that allows you to have a constant organization. In the words of Maturana:

"Living beings are networks of molecular productions that produced molecules with their interactions generate the same network that produces"

To explain this more clearly, I will quote some words from his book: "Machines and Living Beings: Autopoiesis, the organization of the Living ":

" When we were finishing the book the idea of \u200b\u200bmaking a computer model. What I wanted was to use the computer to generate equivalent processes to molecular processes, such that if you let them operate without any reference to all in a unique dynamic neighborhood relations, is a network of processes that constitute an autopoietic system. Much talked about this, until one day (November 1971), in the morning I arrived at the laboratory with a picture that I have yet, representing a particle dynamics in the form of a small set of "synthetic chemical reactions and lysis " that if it took place at the right pace (at the right temperature) would give rise spontaneously as a result, not included as an aspect of process design "molecular", an autopoietic unity in a two-dimensional space, as a computer screen. What we had to do was a computer program to generate these particles with their interactions and transformations in graphic space. If we did, I said, with appropriate rhythms, arise spontaneously dimensional autopoietic units in that space. Since I do not know programming, Francisco with another friend, Ricardo Uribe Berenguer, they could do, and we agree with Francisco that he would first author in the publishing (Varela, Maturana and Uribe, 1975) (see Figure 1).
The dynamics of reactions was proposed as follows: Sean

particles A, B, and M, and let her run the following: 1 .-

2B + A => M + A

2 .- M + M =>
MM MM + M => MMM

3 .- M => 2B

4 .- MMMMM is permeable to the passage of B.

5 .- The M chain is flexible and movable, and can close on itself.

Fig. 1

In conducting the program arose spontaneously in an autopoietic unity in the space of computer graphics. My purpose in this modeling was to show a generative relationship that gave rise to an autopoietic unity as something new in a completely different level domain of operation of its components. At the same time wanted to show that an autopoietic unity was simply the result of spontaneous organization of a set of elements in a particular composite unity as a result of the operation of their properties without any of these to predict what would happen. Anything new that comes as a result of a dynamic generative, arises as a historical novelty, and is inherently new. "

Thanks to this concept of autopoiesis, we can better understand that things are alive and that things do not, however, there are many autopoietic systems that are not alive, such an enterprise (organization remains domestic and "build itself").
Basically, we now know that not all autopoietic systems are living systems, but all living systems are autopoietic systems!, more specifically, living systems are molecular autopoietic systems.

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How evolving a complex eye from something simple? Why

In an earlier talk about Pax-6, an operator of eyes gene is present in both flies and humans, showing that genetic mechanisms to create eyes are highly conserved throughout the animal kingdom. However, do not talk about a question that perhaps many were made: How evolving a complex eye?, We let again the great biologist Richard Dawkins explain us (I recommend watching the video with high quality):



As you can see, because we have representatives present with eyes "primitive", such as snails and worms, we can easily build a line to explain how it is forming a complex eye in camera from just a "point" that only discriminates between light and dark. This solution is that many animals have come (Including us). However, other animals have come to different solutions, such as the compound eyes of insects.

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Artist's Kepler-10b. Credit: NASA

Yesterday I finished the day with the announcement of the discovery of the first Earth-like exoplanet detected by the Kepler space telescope. Kepler has the name of 10-by is a planetary body mass of 4.45 Earth radius is 1.4 times that of our planet and is located at 560 light years away. This discovery was announced at 217 American Astronomical Society Meeting in Seattle.

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According to Douglas, a NASA scientist who has participated in the discovery, "Kepler's discovery of 10-b is a milestone in the search for Earth's sister planets." I am not entirely agree with him, and who is brother-in size rather older brother, but not in distance to their parent star as it is extremely close to, about 20 times closer than Mercury is from our Sun , so the more you brother, I would call "cousin." However, I believe that this discovery represents an important point in the detection of Earth-like exoplanets, as he looks to be open season on the discovery of these bodies exoplanetary.

Because of the distance to its parent star, the exoplanet is outside what we know as the occupied zone, but this gives us the only thing on this planet is that there is no liquid water due to high temperature, so there is no life as we know it on Earth.

Continuing the theme of life beyond Earth, the journal Philosophical Transactions , published by the Royal Society , puts the fuss, and never better, noting that the UN should prepare an action plan for a possible contact with an extraterrestrial civilization, and that it is possible to be a "hostile encounter."

Simon Conway Morris, University of Cambridge, said with a sentence full of sensationalism peliculera and saying "we must be prepared for the worst", and also Morris ventures to say that these beings, as if they had evidence of them, "will very similar to us. "

Kepler's discovery of 10-b is a great find, I hope to be made public in February found further confirmation for the Kepler space telescope. With respect to the Philosophical Transactions published by , texts like these make you lose the prestigious British Royal Society and a company of this caliber should not enter into thematic focus toward sensationalism, sensationalism and the desire to draw attention to data that do not exist. ---


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fruit fly is so used by the biologists?

Whenever I'm asked about my work, people are amazed and can not understand the fact that a study of flies (plus the fact that they come to mind the black flies that haunt the poop). However, one does not use a lot of flies because you are interested in these insects (unless you're an entomologist), but rather because they are an excellent model for understanding how genes work, and as we have seen, the molecular mechanisms involved in how genes are basically the same for all animals on this planet (Is the reason this?, very simple, evolution).
If some do not know this little bug, looks like this:

His real name is Drosophila melanogaster, this is an insect of the order Diptera, an order which also includes mosquitoes and flies. Its common name is "fruit fly" or "fruit flies" as their main food in the wild are decaying fruit.
Its life cycle is that of a holometabolous insect, this means that after the adults lay eggs, they hatch into larvae, which are aimed to feed. Then these larvae transform into pupae, which emerge from the imago (adult) whose main goal is reproduction. This complete cycle is quite fast, a little over 2 weeks, which is the first major advantage of Drosophila as an experimental model, and you can do and get crosses generations in a reasonably short time.
At the genetic level, we find another major advantage of Drosophila , a completely sequenced genome and 4 pairs of chromosomes, one pair of sex (X and Y) and 3 pairs of autosomes, of which only the first 2 are relevant to geneticists, since the fourth chromosome is very small and not useful for transgenesis. However, there is the number of chromosomes in itself a great advantage (although it is much better than using an animal with dozens of them), but the existence of "chromosomes rocker", a powerful tool that offers this model.
rocker chromosomes have several features, one does not recombine during meiosis with their counterparts, so, if you have an animal heterozygous for a rocker, never mix genes across generations, even better, if a fly is homozygous for chromosomes rocker, will never develop, because, in general, these chromosomes contain lethal recessive genes, which are homozygous in the animal's death in such early stages of development as the embryo. Also, if the animal is heterozygous for the rocker (containing the gene of interest in its counterpart), is easily identifiable by their phenotype, as these chromosomes containing dominant markers, such as curved wings (a swing of the second chromosome), clipped wings (a swing of the third chromosome), etc. In this way, you only need to use a magnifying glass to know if the fly in question is homozygous for our gene of interest or heterozygous.
These are the main advantages has Drosophila genetics in thick, which allow you to cross and get a simple recombinant and effectively. However, the true fame of this animal are powerful molecular tools it has, but we will leave that for later. For now, geneticists believe me that these flies are a real goose that lays golden eggs.

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Will we find life beyond Earth in 2011?

Kepler Space Telescope in the cleanroom

before being released. Credit: Ball Aerospace

Surely the answer to the question is: NO. But be optimistic ...

Science for the search for life is making great strides. In 2010 there were at least two attempts with regard: first, the exoplanet Gliese 581g nestled amid the habitability of its parent star, but finally had to be removed from the catalog for further analysis by other research teams were not clairvoyant to prove its existence, the second attempt, still controversial, was the famous GFAJ-1 bacteria, presumably, can incorporate arsenic instead of phosphorus in their DNA.

Few things get the first opportunity, but someone had to do something fundamental: the first step. Exoplanets in the habitable zones of their parent stars, creatures that can incorporate other elements in their DNA or any other relevant or innovative discovery opens many doors in the research, especially in finding life than we know on Earth. But we must be careful, because sometimes, the desire to publish makes investigations are carried out too quickly and are not as valid as they should.

In February, it is believed that the Kepler space satellite publish the leading candidate exoplanet detected so far, in June 2010 and were more than 700 and all of them, 400 are thought to be confirmed as such. The most interesting will be the type Country, and among those 400, some will be ...

Although in 2011 is no life beyond Earth, do not despair, because if they discover a style GFAJ bacteria-1 that has been exchanged for other elements in DNA , we might be able to find life than we know on Earth. Surely this way of life is comfortable in conditions hostile for other living beings on our planet, and put to speculate, who knows if these hostile conditions are given in an exoplanet detected by Kepler? Time will tell.

A small clarification is that when it comes to search life, we are talking about "boring bacteria" without technology curve and unable to travel from one planet to another at relativistic speeds. To search for intelligent life, you first need to point the telescopes at our own planet ...

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